Cooperative and Competitive Networking by Entrepreneurs: A Critical Incident Study
通过关键事件法分析企业家如何利用网络发展业务、能力和动机，检验合作与竞争目标相互依赖理论在创业网络中的适用性。
Our study explores the potential role of the entrepreneur's network on the motivation and success of the new business venture. We analyzed incidents in which entrepreneurs were and were not able to use their networks to help them develop their business, competence and motivation. In the growing literature on entrepreneurship, studies have focused on the individual values, aptitudes, and experiences that distinguish entrepreneurs and affect the development of the enterprise (Bird 1988, Vesper 1987, Wortman 1987). Recently, though, there is more emphasis on understanding the individual entrepreneur within his or her social context (Frey 1984, Low and MacMillan 1988, Schein 1983). The purpose of this study is to examine empirically the relationships entrepreneurs develop with financial backers, suppliers, and others as they implement their business plan. In particular, it tests the usefulness of the theory of cooperative and competitive goal interdependence to analyze the entrepreneurial network. ENTREPRENEURIAL NETWORK RESEARCH Birley (1985) found that entrepreneurs relied extensively on the informal network of family, friends, and business people and less on the formal network of banks, accountants, and lawyers. Incubator complexes and organizations appear to facilitate entrepreneurial activity as well (Vesper 1983). Networks seem vital to perceive opportunities, test ideas, and garner resources to create a new enterprise (Aldrich and Zimmer 1986, Gillingham and Loucks 1982). Entrepreneurs have their own independent businesses, but they operate within a network of people (Aldrich and Zimmer 1986, Dollinger 1985, Gillingham and Loucks 1982). Moreover, entrepreneurs need to keep abreast of current trends if they are going to adapt and implement their business plans successfully. Knowledge of new technologies, changing consumer trends, and new ways to manage and solve problems can have important implications for how they position their products and manage their companies. They also turn to others for support and encouragement to maintain long-term motivation and overcome obstacles. Indeed, entrepreneurs reported that they spend 59 percent of their time with people outside their own company in various kinds of boundary spanning activities (Dollinger 1985). Dollinger also found that financially successful entrepreneurs were particularly active in networking with business people, regulators, and union representatives. COOPERATION AND COMPETITION This study uses the framework of cooperative and competitive interdependence to analyze networks of entrepreneurs. Deutsch (1973, 1980) proposed that the dynamics and outcomes of interaction could be examined in terms of how people perceive their goals are related. In cooperation, people believe their goals are positively linked so that as one moves toward goal attainment, others move toward reaching their goal. They understand that their goal attainment helps others reach their goals; they can be successful together. In competition, people believe their goals are negatively related so that one's success interferes with others; one's successful goal attainment makes others less likely to reach their goals. People with independent goals consider their interests unrelated so that the goal attainment of one neither helps nor hinders other's goals. Considerable research has documented and extended this theory. In particular, studies have found that people with cooperative goals discuss problems and controversies openly and constructively and assist and influence each other effectively (Deutsch 1980, 1973, 1949; Tjosvold 1986a, 1986b, 1985a). Recent meta-analyses support the propositions that cooperative goals and interaction contribute to productivity and morale (Johnson, Johnson, and Maruyama 1983; Johnson, et al., 1981). Competitive goals result in reduced communication and exchange, avoidance or escalation of conflict, low productivity (except on some simple tasks), and low morale. …