Public versus Private Initiative in Arctic Exploration: The Effects of Incentives and Organizational Structure
比较1818-1909年间35次政府与57次私人北极探险，发现私人探险取得多数重大发现，而公共探险虽资金更充足却损失更多船只、船员健康更差、死亡率更高，原因在于领导结构、信息适应和激励问题。
From 1818 to 1909, 35 government and 57 privately funded expeditions sought to locate and navigate a Northwest Passage, discover the North Pole, and make other significant discoveries in Arctic regions. Most major Arctic discoveries were made by private expeditions. Most tragedies were publicly funded. Public expeditions were better funded than their private counterparts yet lost more ships, experienced poorer crew health, and had more men die. Public expeditions' poor performance is not attributable to differences in objectives, available technologies, or country of origin. Rather, it reflects a tendency toward poor leadership structures, slow adaptation to new information, and perverse incentives.