Punishing the Foreigner: Implicit Discrimination in the Premier League Based on Oppositional Identity*
利用英超联赛大量比赛数据，发现白人裁判对对立身份的非白人球员判罚更多黄牌，且这种歧视在裁判时间紧迫或判罚模糊时加剧，排除了有意识歧视的可能性。
Abstract We present the first empirical study to reveal the presence of implicit discrimination in a non‐experimental setting . By using a large dataset of in‐match data in the English Premier League, we show that white referees award significantly more yellow cards against non‐white players of oppositional identity . We argue that this is the result of implicit discrimination by showing that this discriminatory behaviour: (i) increases in how rushed the referee is before making a decision, and (ii) it increases in the level of ambiguity of the decision. The variation in (i) and (ii) cannot be explained by any form of conscious discrimination such as taste‐based or statistical discrimination. Moreover, we show that oppositional identity players do not differ in their behaviour from other players along several dimensions related to aggressiveness and style of play providing further evidence that this is not statistical discrimination.