Factor Biases and Technical Change in Manufacturing: The American System, 1850–1919
研究了1850–1919年美国制造业是否存在有偏技术变革，发现劳动节约型和资本使用型偏向普遍存在，且行业间差异显著。
This paper examines the proposition that U.S. manufacturing experienced biased technical change during the period 1850–1919. Tests for bias, in Hicksian terms, are conducted using the translog cost dual. Redefined census data permit these tests to be made at the two-digit level of industry classification and with four inputs considered—labor, capital, materials, and a residual factor input. The tests demonstrate that labor-saving and capital-using biases existed, but material-using biases also were present. Furthermore, the patterns of bias varied considerably from industry to industry and often were of such a magnitude as to overpower ordinary substitution effects.