Male-Female Wage Differentials in Job Ladders
指出男女工资差异主要源于职业分配不同，而非同一职位内的歧视；女性晋升概率较低导致其工资低于男性，即使能力分布相同。
Much of the male-female wage differential exists because men and women are assigned to different jobs. Within narrow job categories, there is no male-female differential. Only a tortured taste theory of discrimination can reconcile these facts. We argue that differential movement along job ladders entails comparative advantage, so the ability standard for promotion is higher for women. This implies that more able women will be passed over in favor of less able men. Women, assumed to have the same ability distribution as men, earn less. The differential reflects females' lower promotion probability, not within-job discrimination.