A Spatial Theory of Positive and Negative Campaigning
修改霍特林空间竞争模型，研究候选人如何在正面竞选（影响选民对其意识形态的认知）与负面竞选（影响对手的意识形态认知）之间分配资源，预测个人属性较差的候选人更倾向于负面竞选，并以1988年总统选举为例说明。
In order to explore the content of electoral campaigns, this paper makes two modifications to Hotelling's model of spatial competition. First, we assume that agents inherit initial locations and engage in costly relocation. Second, an agent's relocation is affected by her rival's actions. We investigate how a candidate allocates resources between positive campaigning—which influences voters' perceptions of her own ideology—and negative campaigning—which influences her opponent's perceived ideology. Our theory predicts that the candidate who is perceived as having less attractive personal attributes runs a relatively more negative campaign. The theory's implications are illustrated for the 1988 presidential election.Journal of Economic LiteratureClassification Numbers: C7, H0.