Pfeffer's Model of Management: An Expansion and Modification
基于对普费弗管理模型的探索性研究，提出对管理行动与实质性和象征性结果之间关系的修正，指出管理者对信念的影响并非必然大于对有形结果的影响，而是取决于管理动机、象征行动类型和组织类型。
This article, based on an exploratory study of Pfeffer's model of management, recommends several modifications to its conception of the relationships between managerial actions and substantive and symbolic outcomes. We suggest that the manager's influence on beliefs is not necessarily greater than on tangible outcomes, but is contingent on managerial motivation, the type of symbolic action employed, and the type of organization involved. Our data indicate that factors affecting the strength of the link between substantive and symbolic outcomes differ with the type of symbolic actions employed and with the existence (or absence) of efforts to make the use of power unobtrusive.