Statistical Information Systems and Management1
论文认为统计信息系统通常反映层级结构，但非层级化使用表明统计通过自我管理促进协调，主张统计信息系统应独立于管理，按“应知”而非“需知”原则运作。
Information systems are usually seen as reflecting and/or reinforcing a hierarchical structure. But interorganizational nonhierarchical uses indicate that statistics contri bute to coordination through self-management of otherwise independent organizations. Studies of organizations show that statistical information systems contribute in similar ways to the coordination of activities of subunits and individuals within the organization. The paper advocates that statistical information systems should be independent of management and should operate according to an ought-to-know rather than the usual need-to-know principle. Coordination is fostered if each contributing individual or subunit receives statistics relating that individual's or subunit's activities in the context in which such statistics are seen by management.