The costs of motherhood: an analysis using matching estimators
用匹配方法估计母亲身份对工资的影响，区分了包含总工资成本的净效应和因果直接效应，发现净效应为负且在不同部门间差异不大，直接效应在公共部门为小负值，在私营部门不显著。
Abstract We estimate the effect of motherhood on wages using matching. We distinguish between net and direct effects. The net effect includes the total wage costs, whereas the direct represents the causal effect. Since covariates are likely affected by motherhood, the latter effect is not immediately uncovered. We therefore implement two strategies: first, we confine the analysis to consider sector‐specific treatment effects; second, we impose additive separability on the outcome equation. We find negative net effects that vary little with sector. The direct effect is small and negative in the public sector and insignificant in the private sector. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.