Marketing Costs and Instability in the International Grain Trade
用理论模型说明国际谷物营销系统中的固定因素如何使贸易不稳定时的营销成本高于稳定时，并展示营销系统加剧价格波动对进出口商的不利影响，辅以海运等实证证据。
Abstract Fixed factors in the international grain‐marketing system reduce flexibility and make adjustment to variable trade volumes difficult. A theoretical model is used to show how this causes marketing costs with trade instability to exceed those occurring under stability. Also, it is demonstrated that the marketing system increases the adverse effects of price variation on importers and exporters. Supporting empirical evidence, primarily dealing with ocean shipping, is presented. The results suggest that stable trade volumes may reduce marketing costs significantly. Thus, the marketing system should be considered in questions dealing with instability in the international grain trade.