Emergence of Endogenous Legal Institutions: Property Rights and Community Governance in the Italian Alps
研究了13至19世纪阿尔卑斯山约200个社区中保护产权的制度变化，特别是公共牧场和森林管理从非正式安排转向正式章程的过程，发现章程虽成本高但提高了资源使用效率。
This article examines changes in institutions that protected property rights in the Alps between the thirteenth and the nineteenth century and, in particular, alternative management systems adopted for the common pastures and forests in about 200 communities. Over time, private-order institutions in the form of charters replaced informal arrangements sustained by the long-run interaction among villagers. Although costly to run, the charters accomplished several tasks that increased resource use efficiency.