The Building of Democratic Organizations: An Embryological Metaphor
提出用胚胎学原理（不可逆性、渠道化、诱导、脆弱性）来解释志愿组织中官僚制与正式民主的相互依赖发展过程，对研究组织民主化的学者有参考价值。
An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 1981 Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association in Toronto. I gratefully acknowledge Robert L. Cafferata, developmental biologist, for assistance with this explication of embryological principles; Anne McMahon, sociologist, for criticism and encouragement; and Deanna Alton, Martha Hartley, and Jane Schmidt for clerical support. This paper proposes an embryological metaphor for the development of bureaucracy and formal democracy in voluntary associations. It assumes that bureaucratization and democratization (defined as the extension of formal democracy) are interdependent processes insofar as members expand formally democratic procedures to counteract the hierarchical tendencies of bureaucracy. They are complementary mechanisms for the control of decision making by members. This paper shows how four principles of embryological development -irreversibility, canalization, induction, and vulnerabilitymay explain patterns of bureaucratization and democratization in organizations. The embryological approach extends the ecological approach to differentiation in organizations through its focus on genetic workings and shows how these may interact with environmental forces to produce enduring organizational forms.