The Effect of Court-Ordered Hiring Quotas on the Composition and Quality of Police
评估美国法院强制警察局实施种族招聘配额的效果，发现新警员中非裔比例提高14个百分点，但犯罪率未受影响，逮捕率和严重逮捕中非裔比例略有下降。
Arguably the most aggressive affirmative action program ever implemented in the United States was a series of court-ordered racial hiring quotas imposed on municipal police departments. My best estimate of the effect of court-ordered affirmative action on work-force composition is a 14-percentage-point gain in the fraction African American among newly hired officers. Evidence on police performance is mixed. Despite substantial black-white test score differences on police department entrance examinations, city crime rates appear unaffected by litigation. However, litigation lowers slightly both arrests per crime and the fraction black among serious arrestees.