A Nation of Immigrants: Assimilation and Economic Outcomes in the Age of Mass Migration
利用新构建的面板数据，研究发现1850-1913年美国大规模移民期间，平均而言移民初抵时并未面临显著的职业收入惩罚，且职业提升速度与本土出生者相同，但同化模式因来源国而异并延续至第二代。
During the Age of Mass Migration (1850-1913), the United States maintained an open border, absorbing 30 million European immigrants. Prior cross-sectional work finds that immigrants initially held lower-paid occupations than natives but converged over time. In newly assembled panel data, we show that, in fact, the average immigrant did not face a substantial occupation-based earnings penalty upon first arrival and experienced occupational advancement at the same rate as natives. Cross-sectional patterns are driven by biases from declining arrival cohort skill level and departures of negatively selected return migrants. We show that assimilation patterns vary substantially across sending countries and persist in the second generation.