Biased Technical Change, Scale, and Factor Substitution in American Industry, 1850–1919
利用广义里昂惕夫生产函数的成本对偶形式，检验1850至1919年间美国19个制造业部门的技术变革偏向、规模经济与要素替代性，发现多数部门存在这些效应。
Biased technical change, scale economies, and factor substitution were part of U.S. manufacturing's technical response to factor price movements during the period 1850 to 1919. In this article we employ the cost dual of a Generalized Leontief production function to test directly for the presence of these three effects for nineteen two-digit manufacturing sectors. Biased technical change is found in all but one sector; scale economies in all but two; factor substitutability, in all but five. Estimates of scale and bias effects for labor, capital, and materials are presented by sector, and the results are compared with other recent work.