Which Is the Fairest One of All? A Positive Analysis of Justice Theories
实证评估多种正义理论描述真实人公正偏好的准确性，并提出一个整合理论，涵盖平等、功利、应得和情境四个维度，以调和不同理论间的矛盾结果。
No man during, either the whole of his life, or that of any considerable part of it, ever trod steadily and uniformly in the path … of justice, … whose conduct was not principally directed by a regard to the sentiments of the supposed impartial spectator, of the great inmate of the breast, the great judge and arbiter of conduct. – Adam Smith (1759) p. 357. This paper evaluates numerous positive and normative theories of justice in positive terms, i.e., in terms of how accurately they describe the impartial fairness preferences of real people. In addition, the paper proposes and defends an integrated justice theory based on preferences over four distinct and sometimes conflicting forces. These forces frame the analysis of the individual theories and inspire four corresponding theoretical classes: equality and need, utilitarianism and welfare economics, equity and desert, and context. This synthesis enables one to treat justice rigorously and to reconcile results that often appear contradictory or at odds with alternative theories.