Bidding for WIC Infant Formula Contracts: Do Non‐WIC Customers Subsidize WIC Customers?
研究发现美国WIC食品援助计划虽购买超半数婴儿配方奶粉，但未影响批发价或加价，而是通过品牌偏好增加非参与者销量，厂商以回扣竞标独家资格，为计划节省成本。
Although the Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) food‐assistance program purchases over half of all U.S. infant formula, I find it does not affect wholesale prices. I estimate infant‐formula marginal cost and find it low compared with the wholesale price, implying large price‐cost markups. But I find the program does not affect markups. Instead, the program gives preference to one firm's brand, and that brand attains a prominence in stores that results in larger sales to nonparticipants. The preference is valuable to firms and they bid with rebates to attain exclusive approved status, which results in significant cost savings to the program.