School Inputs, Household Substitution, and Test Scores
研究发现，在印度和赞比亚，学校获得意外拨款能提高学生考试成绩，但预期内的拨款则无效，因为家庭会相应减少自身教育支出，这提醒我们在评估学校投入对学习效果的影响时需谨慎。
Empirical studies of the relationship between school inputs and test scores typically do not account for household responses to changes in school inputs. Evidence from India and Zambia shows that student test scores are higher when schools receive unanticipated grants, but there is no impact of grants that are anticipated. We show that the most likely mechanism for this result is that households offset their own spending in response to anticipated grants. Our results confirm the importance of optimal household responses and suggest caution when interpreting estimates of school inputs on learning outcomes as parameters of an education production function.