MARKETS FOR CHILDREN IN EARLY AMERICA: A POLITICAL ECONOMY OF PAUPER APPRENTICESHIP
研究了美国早期贫民儿童从户外救济转变为专门化工艺学徒的过程，发现不同地区（波士顿、罗德岛、查尔斯顿）的契约条款（教育训练与最终支付）关系存在差异，且契约设计偏向雇主利益，因为儿童在契约形成中缺乏代言。
After beginning as a kind of outdoor poor relief, long-term indenture of poor children evolved into a specialized form of craft apprenticeship. Analysis of indenture terms indicates that relationships between end payments (“freedom dues”) and education and training clauses varied by region. In Boston, education and training clauses were associated negatively with freedom-dues clauses, but in Rhode Island and Charleston the relationship was positive. Variation in freedom dues to suit the needs of the master or overseer of the poor, without reference to the worker-child's own interests, resulted from the child's lack of advocacy during contract formation.