When theories become tools: Toward a framework for pragmatic validity
探讨了知识具有实用性的特征，回顾了以往研究，提出了涵盖命题、叙事和视觉三种表征模式的实用有效性框架，指出学术界过度依赖命题模式而实践者偏好叙事和视觉知识，并强调了视觉概念模型的作用。
In this article we discuss the characteristics of knowledge that lead to practical utility. We first review previous efforts at identifying the characteristics of useful knowledge. These contributions are grouped into three perspectives according to which representational mode they imply: propositional, narrative, or visual. We develop a framework for pragmatic validity that encompasses knowledge represented in all three modes. However, we also note an over-reliance on the propositional mode in academia, which contrasts with a preference for narrative and visual knowledge among practitioners. Explicit and propositional knowledge are key criteria for achieving scientific validity, but more ambiguous knowledge serves important functions in organizational life and may thus possess pragmatic validity. We highlight the role of conceptual models expressed in a visual format, a representational mode that has received little attention in the literature. We end with suggestions for further research that may extend...