Urbanization Patterns: European Versus Less Developed Countries
构建模型分析运输成本、规模报酬递增和劳动力迁移如何影响城市集聚，并比较19世纪欧洲与当代欠发达国家城市化差异，解释为何欠发达国家首位城市主导而欧洲大城市人口占比相对较小。
This paper develops a model in which the interaction between transport costs, increasing returns to scale, and labor migration across sectors and regions creates a tendency for urban agglomeration. Demand from rural areas favors urban dispersion. European urbanization took place mainly in the 19th century, with higher costs of spatial interaction, weaker economies of scale, and a less-elastic supply of labor to the urban sector than in less developed countries (LDCs) today. These factors could help explain why primate cities dominate in LDCs, whereas a comparatively small share of urban population lives in Europe's largest cities.