Calculating failure: The making of a calculative infrastructure for forgiving and forecasting failure
研究了失败如何从个人道德问题转变为可计算的经济范畴，考察了19世纪英美对失败的宽恕、信用评级机构的兴起以及20世纪基于财务比率和风险指数的失败预测基础设施的形成。
This paper examines how the category of failure was economised and made calculable. It explores the preconditions for this shift in three stages. First, it explores how failure came to be 'forgiven' in both the US and the UK across the nineteenth century, how it came to be defined as something that is economic or financial, rather than personal or moral. Second, it explores the rapid growth of narrating and rating failure in the mid-nineteenth century, with particular attention to the formation of credit rating agencies from the 1840s onwards. We consider also the roles played in this process by two fortuitous technological developments: the typewriter and carbon paper for copying. Third, we examine the emergence of the calculative infrastructure, which has helped to establish an industry of attempts to forecast failure from the beginning of the twentieth century, initially on the basis of financial ratios, and more recently through the use of risk indexes. We use the term 'calculating failure' to describe this transformation and economisation of both the ideas and the instruments of failure, and suggest that this has significant implications for the study of strategy.