Advertising and Aggregate Consumption: An Analysis of Causality
使用格兰杰因果检验方法，基于样本外预测表现，检验美国总广告支出与总消费支出之间的因果关系。结果发现广告不导致消费，但消费可能导致广告。
This paper is concerned with testing for causation, using the Granger definition, in a bivariate time-series context. It is argued that a sound and natural approach to such tests must rely primarily on the out-of-sample forecasting performance of models relating the original (non-prewhitened) series of interest. A specific technique of this sort is presented and employed to investigate the relation between aggregate advertising and aggregate consumption spending. The null hypothesis that advertising does not cause consumption cannot be rejected, but some evidence suggesting that consumption may cause advertising is presented.