Data Is More than Knowledge: Implications of the Reversed Knowledge Hierarchy for Knowledge Management and Organizational Memory
挑战了传统的数据-信息-知识层级，提出数据只有在已有信息后才出现，信息只有在已有知识后才出现，这一反转对开发支持知识管理和组织记忆的信息系统有重要影响，并可能影响组织的灵活性和更新。
:The knowledge management literature often points out the importance of distinguishing among data, information, and knowledge. The generally accepted view sees data as simple facts that become information as data are combined into meaningful structures, which subsequently become knowledge as meaningful information is put into a context and when it can be used to make predictions. According to this view, data are a prerequisite for information, and information is a prerequisite for knowledge. This paper explores the conceptual hierarchy of data, information, and knowledge, showing that data emerge only after we have information, and that information emerges only after we already have knowledge. The reversed hierarchy of knowledge is shown to lead to a different approach in developing information systems that support knowledge management and organizational memory. It is also argued that this difference may have major implications for organizational flexibility and renewal.