The Fourth Face of Federalism
研究了1970年代美国联邦主义中出现的第四张面孔，即私人和半公共团体与各级政府合作管理联邦政策的现象，重点分析了CETA和社区发展整笔拨款两个项目对城市治理的影响。
T he 1970s brought a face to federalism, a collection of private and semi-public groups and agencies that moved into a full partnership with the national, state, and local governments in administering federal policy. This fourth face of federalism emerged from the decade's breed of intergovernmental grant programs. Richard Nixon promised a New Federalism of guaranteed grants, fewer federal rules, and more discretion for state and local governments on what projects could receive support. It was in general revenue sharing for all state and local governments and in manpower and community development programs, mainly for the cities, that this new federalism bore fruit. It was fruit, however, that the cities found difficult to pick, for the programs proved complex to administer. Two programs-the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act, enacted in 1973, and Community Development Block Grants, established a year later-became important sources of both revenue and services for local governments. CETA allows recipients, mostly large cities,' wide discretion in establishing their own manpower training and public service employment programs. CD gives cities a nearly free rein in choosing projects for housing rehabilitation, development, and public services.2 Both programs have relatively simple application requirements and both programs leave most of the responsibility for deciding how best to administer local projects in local hands. It was as a solution to the administrative question that the fourth face of federalism emerged. Very few-if any-cities had extensive experience in organizing and running manpower and community development programs before the 1970s. Most of mayors' complaints during the Great Society, in fact, were that the federal government was bypassing city hall in dealing directly with clients like neighborhood groups or in providing money to quasi-municipal bureaus like redevelopment agencies that often resisted local control. CETA and CD ended that era by delivering the money directly to city hall