How the Second-Order Free Rider Problem Is Solved in a Small-Scale Society
通过肯尼亚图尔卡纳人的小规模社会案例，研究为何人们自愿惩罚违规者而非搭便车，发现对二阶搭便车者和不负责任惩罚者的道德规范是解决这一问题的关键。
Moralistic punishment enables human cooperation, but an outstanding question is why people voluntarily sanction when they can obtain the benefits of punishment without being enforcers themselves. To address how decentralized societies solve this second-order free rider issue, I examine why people punish among the Turkana, a population in Kenya in which informal peer sanctioning sustains participation in high-stakes interethnic warfare. Using vignette experiments I show that Turkana subjects express punitive sentiments toward second-order free riders and those who sanction irresponsibly. The prevalence of such meta norms regulating punishment reveal a possible pathway by which moralistic punishment could have evolved.