In Pursuit of Product Modularity: Impediments and Stimulants
构建了一个2×2矩阵框架，帮助企业决定产品应设计为整体式、生产模块化、使用模块化（聚焦销售“墨盒”）或使用模块化（聚焦推广众多应用），关键因素包括用户异质性、组件更新频率差异及模块化/整体化代价。
This article develops a framework, including a 2 × 2 matrix, to help guide firms in deciding when to design their products to be integral, modular-in-production, modular-in-use with a focus on selling “cartridges,” or modular-in-use with a focus on promoting numerous apps. Three key factors are as follows: the level of user heterogeneity, the disparity across components in frequency of updating, and the modularity/integrality penalty.