Free Primary Education, Timing of Fertility, and Total Fertility
利用马拉维1990年代的免费初等教育改革，采用双重差分法估计其对女性教育、结婚年龄、首次生育年龄及总生育数量的因果影响，发现改革推迟了婚姻和生育、减少了青少年生育数量。
Abstract This study employs a difference-in-differences estimation strategy to study the causal impacts of free primary education (FPE) on women’s schooling and fertility-related outcomes using the 1990s FPE reform of Malawi. The results show that full exposure to FPE at the mean value of the reform’s potential impact led to an 18.5 percentage points increase in the probability of ever enrolling in school and 1.2 years of additional schooling. Furthermore, the reduced form estimates suggest that full exposure to FPE increased age at first marriage and at first childbirth by almost 0.79 and 0.98 years respectively. The study also finds statistically significant reductions at all ages between age 14 and 24 in the total number of children to which women give birth. By age 24, for example, full exposure to FPE at the mean value of the reform’s potential impact led to 0.28 fewer children. In addition, there is evidence showing that exposure to FPE led to increased spacing between the first two births (about six additional months) if the first child is female. The study explores several channels through which FPE may affect fertility-related outcomes. Postponement of marriage and first childbirth, increased contraceptive use, and changes in mate characteristics all play a role.