Turnout and Closeness: Evidence from 60 Years of Bavarian Mayoral Elections
利用巴伐利亚州1946-2009年市长选举数据，通过两轮选举制衡量选举激烈程度，发现激烈程度每提高一个标准差，投票率上升1.27个百分点，且雨天对投票率的负面影响在激烈选举中减弱。
Abstract One prediction of the calculus of voting is that electoral closeness positively affects turnout via a higher probability of one vote being decisive. I test this theory with data on all mayoral elections in the German state of Bavaria between 1946 and 2009. Importantly, I use constitutionally prescribed two‐round elections to measure electoral closeness and thereby improve on existing work that mostly uses ex post measures that are prone to endogeneity. The results suggest that electoral closeness matters: a one standard deviation increase in closeness increases turnout by 1.27 percentage points, which corresponds to 1/7 of a standard deviation in this variable. I also evaluate how other factors such as electorate size or rain on election day affect turnout differentially depending on the closeness of the race. While rain decreases turnout on average, this effect is mitigated in close elections, as indicated by a positive interaction effect of the two variables.