The Effect of Court-Ordered Hiring Quotas on the Composition and Quality of Police
研究美国法院强制实施的种族招聘配额对警察队伍中非裔美国人比例的影响，发现新警员中非裔比例提高了14个百分点，但对犯罪率无显著影响，逮捕率和逮捕中非裔比例略有下降。
Arguably the most aggressive affirmative action program ever implemented in the United States was a series of court-ordered racial hiring quotas imposed on municipal police departments.My best estimate of the effect of court-ordered affirmative action on workforce composition is a 14 percentage point gain in the fraction African American among newly hired officers.Evidence on police performance is mixed.Despite substantial black-white test score differences on police department entrance examinations, city crime rates appear unaffected by litigation.However, litigation lowers slightly both arrests per crime and the fraction black among serious arrestees.