What Causes the Child Penalty? Evidence from Adopting and Same-Sex Couples
研究通过比较异性恋非收养、收养和同性伴侣的儿童惩罚，发现生育和父亲在劳动力市场的优势并非主要原因，而偏好、性别规范和歧视是主要解释。
New parenthood causes large decreases in labor market incomes for mothers but not fathers, a stylized fact known as the “child penalty.” We combine a simple household model with estimates of child penalties in heterosexual nonadopting, adopting, and same-sex couples to better understand what causes the child penalty in heterosexual nonadopting couples. Our results largely rule out giving birth and the father’s advantage in the labor market as mechanisms, leaving preferences, gender norms, and discrimination as the main explanations. In addition, our paper provides novel evidence on the impact of children on labor market outcomes of adopting and same-sex couples.