Missing Women, Integration Costs, and Big Push Policies in the Saudi Labor Market
研究社会规范导致性别隔离时企业雇佣女性的融合成本，发现沙特多数企业受此限制，而性别中立的配额政策Nitaqat促使企业融合并大幅增加沙特女性就业。
In settings where social norms promote gender segregation, firms may find it costly to employ both men and women. These integration costs may hinder women's employment. We develop a methodology to test for the presence of fixed integration costs and estimate counterfactual women's employment at all-male firms where these costs bind. We apply our approach in Saudi Arabia and find that integration costs bind for the majority of firms. We show that Nitaqat, a gender-neutral quota program that incentivized the hiring of Saudi nationals at private sector firms, induced firms to integrate and dramatically increased Saudi women's employment.