When the Stadium Goes Silent: How Crowds Affect the Performance of Discriminated Groups
利用新冠疫情导致的足球比赛无观众自然实验，研究发现非洲裔球员在无球迷时表现更好，表明种族歧视压力会损害受歧视群体的表现并降低比赛质量。
Using a natural experiment induced by COVID-19, we test how the sudden absence of fans at football games impacts player performance in Italy. We find that African players, who are most commonly targeted by racial harassment, play better when fans are no longer at the stadium. A similar, albeit weaker, effect is detected among black players. Using official records of racist behaviour by fans, we show that performance improves the most in teams that were subject to abuse before the lockdown. Our evidence suggests that racist pressure can harm discriminated groups and lower the overall quality of the game.