The Forces of Ecosystem Evolution
分析了向心力和离心力如何推动经济生态系统演化，技术互补性等向心力随时间可能商品化或标准化，管理实践如开放式创新则产生离心力，适合研究企业战略和产业组织的学者。
Summary Ecosystems are the result of a delicate balance between centripetal forces that push economic activities toward integration, and centrifugal forces that pull economic activities out onto the market. Ecosystems evolve when these forces change. For example, technological complementarities—the main source of centripetal force—are dynamic and may be commoditized, generalized, or standardized over time. Management and coordination also change: for example, open innovation practices enable firms to move innovation activities from the in-house R&D lab out into the ecosystem. This article discusses how such dynamics in technologies and management lead to ecosystem evolution.