Success Is Not Final; Failure Is Not Fatal: How Failure Versus Success Messaging Leads to Preference for Masculine Brands
研究发现，在成就情境中经历失败或看到失败（而非成功）广告，会提升消费者对男性化品牌的偏好，但对女性化或中性品牌无效；这种效应由消费者的敌意情绪中介，且当消费者为失败负责时效果更强。
Marketers commonly use ads that associate brands with success in persuasive communications. Yet, these ads may not be the most effective way to promote brands, particularly masculine brands. The current research examines when and why failure messaging can be an effective promotional approach. Across eight studies using both observational and experimental data from field and lab settings, the authors demonstrate that experiences of failure in achievement contexts, and ads that employ failure (vs. success) messaging, are more effective in promoting masculine but not feminine or neutral brands. An increase in consumers’ hostility mediates these effects. Feminine brands that employ aggressive branding cues (e.g., the color red) can also benefit from failure messaging. Additionally, the benefits of failure messaging are enhanced when people do (vs. do not) take responsibility for their failures, and this moderating effect is intensified (weakened) when failures are attributed to unstable (stable) causes. Finally, the consumption of masculine options was found to assist consumers in recovering from achievement failures.