Digitally enabled sharing economy models at the base of the pyramid
本文综述了数字化共享经济模式在金字塔底层（BoP）的应用，探讨其如何通过数字平台促进资源分享、社会包容与可持续发展，同时指出可能存在的剥削、排斥等负面效应，并分析了数字平台特征与共享经济维度之间的匹配对价值创造的影响。
The digitally enabled sharing economy, a system where underutilised assets or services are exchanged via digital platforms, offers unique opportunities for value creation at the base of the pyramid (BoP)1 (Qureshi, Bhatt, & Shukla, 2021b). When leveraged effectively, sharing economy models (SEM) can bring hope for a more inclusive and sustainable economic future. Leveraging digital technologies, it is claimed, facilitates the efficient redistribution of resources, ensuring that even those with limited means can access goods and services that were previously out of reach. Optimising the use of idle assets not only maximises economic benefits for participants but also, it is argued, fosters community engagement and social cohesion. Additionally, SEM have the potential to promote inclusivity and sustainability by providing marginalised communities with avenues for income generation, resource sharing and enhanced social capital. The integration of digital platforms with SEM ensures wider reach and accessibility, making it a powerful tool for addressing economic disparities and driving positive social change if implemented by social intermediaries (Pillai, Shukla, & Qureshi, 2021). Recent studies have documented numerous digitally enabled sharing economy models (DESEM) at the BoP, which help offer a range of products and services, including transportation (e.g., SafeBoda, Eva.coop), accommodation (e.g., Fairbnb, CoAbode), innovative coworking spaces (e.g., Impact Hub), shared farming (e.g., Farmizen), agricultural equipment (e.g. EM3, Hello Tractor), trading (e.g., Ethitrade), financial services (e.g., FarmDrive, Rang De), communal sharing (e.g., Moving Feast, bHive) and sharing channels for agricultural produce (MIRI Haat, Loop) (Qureshi, Bhatt, & Shukla, 2021a). DESEM has the potential to address grand societal challenges such as poverty, marginalisation, inequality, discrimination, hunger and greenhouse gas emissions that often characterise the BoP population. However, scholars have also documented the dark sides of DESEM, where discrimination, exploitation and social exclusion can be reproduced and nurtured (Mosaad et al., 2023; Qureshi, Bhatt, & Shukla, 2021c). Despite its relevance, DESEM has not been adequately explored in existing research. SEM at the BoP can be understood through three dimensions: scope of sharing, possibility of socialisation and degree of social intermediation (Qureshi, Bhatt, & Shukla, 2021b). The synergistic integration of digital technologies with these dimensions has the potential to increase the access and reach of DESEM. The configurations of SEM across these dimensions and their alignment with digital technologies, such as digital platform characteristics, have significant implications for social, economic and environmental value creation (Figure 1). BoP is characterised by severe resource constraints, pervasive poverty, marginalisation, a significant digital divide, institutional voids and deficient infrastructure (Kistruck et al., 2013; Qureshi et al., 2021d; Qureshi, Pan, & Zheng, 2021). These defining characteristics critically influence the design and implementation of DESEM within BoP contexts. Recent research explores how entrepreneurs design and implement SEM to address BoP challenges (Parthiban et al., 2020, 2021; Qiu et al., 2021). While the focus of this research is on how these models can drive reformative or transformative changes within BoP contexts (Qureshi, Bhatt, & Shukla, 2021b), firms may also leverage these models to exploit institutional voids. Consequently, BoP characteristics shape the design and implementation of DESEM irrespective of the intention to create positive or negative outcomes for the BoP population. The influence of BoP characteristics on DESEM design and implementation remains a critical yet underexplored area in sharing economy literature. The BoP characteristics can shape digital platform characteristics, including governance (incentive and controls), trust and rating, transparency, privacy and security (Chen et al., 2022; Teubner & Flath, 2019). An effective digital platform design would require that the digital platform is contextualised to the needs of the BoP population. For example, resource constraints and accessibility concerns can motivate enterprises to take technoficing approach (Qureshi, Pandey, et al., 2023), where social objectives are pursued using a ‘good enough’ technology sufficient for the purpose (Parthiban et al., 2024; Qureshi et al., 2022). Thus, affordability, ease of use, availability, accessibility and cultural compatibility are critical rather than the sophistication of the technology (Parthiban et al., 2024; Qureshi, Pan, & Zheng, 2021), as digital platforms require localization and cultural embedding to enhance engagement from the BoP population (Qureshi et al., 2024). Moreover, as intermediaries can design platforms to either empower the BoP communities or exploit their vulnerabilities for profit-making (Qureshi, Bhatt, & Shukla, 2021b), their objectives will also influence the features of digital platforms, such as incentives, transparency, privacy and security (Teubner & Flath, 2019). Similarly, the BoP context can shape the three dimensions of the SEM—scope of sharing, possibility of socialisation and degree of social intermediation. The prevailing institutions and lacking infrastructure can affect the scope of sharing (Qureshi, Bhatt, & Shukla, 2021a). For example, illiteracy and lack of digital awareness can hinder effective sharing within the BoP community (Parthiban et al., 2020). On the other hand, the existing social hierarchy and discriminatory norms can lead to exclusion of and discrimination against the marginalised communities within the BoP context, affecting both the scope of sharing and the possibility of socialisation (Attri & Bapuji, 2021). Finally, the degree of social intermediation needed for successful implementation is also shaped by the BoP context. The formal and informal institutional voids may necessitate high involvement from social intermediaries for value creation and equitable distribution (Pillai, Pandey, & Bhatt, 2021; Pillai, Shukla, & Qureshi, 2021). The consequences of DESEM can be paradoxical (Acquier et al., 2017) due to the complex interaction between the three dimensions of SEM and the characteristics of digital platforms, leading to various outcomes (Figure 1). Proper alignment between digital platform characteristics and SEM dimensions can foster community building, enhance social capital, improve collective well-being and reduce environmental impacts. For example, Drishtee, an Indian social enterprise, aligns its digital platform with SEM dimensions to improve sharing and socialisation among community members. It acts as a social intermediary to build inclusive social capital by leveraging a barter system without charging commissions, thus maintaining high transparency and taking a technoficing approach to create value at the BoP, scoring high on the scope of sharing, level of socialisation and degree of social intermediation (Pillai, Pandey, & Bhatt, 2021). Conversely, misalignment can lead to social displacement, increased living costs, reduced reciprocity and care in sharing practices, favouring profit over socialisation, especially in tourist areas where accommodation sharing displaces local poor populations (Wachsmuth & Weisler, 2018). Platforms with high fees, discriminatory access controls and lack of transparency hinder sharing, socialisation and social intermediation, leading to value destruction rather than creation (Qureshi, Bhatt, & Shukla, 2021a). Aligning DESEM components, as seen with platforms like Fairbnb, which focus on shared value creation and cooperativism, can promote sustainable tourism and enhance local collaboration, mitigating negative externalities (Mannan & Pek, 2021). Therefore, the paradoxical outcomes of DESEM can be better understood by analysing the alignment or misalignment between digital platform characteristics and SEM dimensions. DESEM can generate income by utilising underused assets or services but can also lead to income instability, complicating financial planning for workers (Acquier et al., 2017; Mosaad et al., 2023). BoP participation in sharing economy is risky with job uncertainty, lack of full-time employment benefits, and income instability. These negative consequences can be mitigated by aligning digital platform and SEM dimension. A well-designed digital platform that broadens and deepens sharing can help participants to diversify their income. For example, bHive, an Australian community-sharing platform, utilises localization (Qureshi et al., 2024) to enable communal sharing of multiple underutilised goods and services, including free time (Escobedo et al., 2021), thus enhancing socialisation and reducing dependency on cash transactions. This model creates a local safety net, mitigating income instability and uncertainty. Another trade-off exists between reduced costs and hidden costs in DESEM. While cost reduction benefits are apparent, hidden costs—monetary (e.g., asset ownership, insurance) and non-monetary (e.g., wait times, privacy concerns, internet dependence)—are often overlooked (Han et al., 2022; Markman et al., 2021; Mosaad et al., 2023). These hidden costs significantly impact the net benefits (or losses) the BoP population can incur. Aligning DESEM components, such as improving transparency and trust (e.g., through ratings and privacy/security measures), can help reduce information asymmetry and enable participants to better evaluate opportunities and hidden costs, thereby enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of asset sharing. Similarly, while DESEM also has the potential to enhance access to various goods and services (e.g., farm machinery, land, labour, financial services) that are otherwise limited for the BoP population, the digital divide remains a significant barrier, leading to unequal access and capabilities (Qureshi, Bhatt, & Shukla, 2021a). Despite efforts from various stakeholders, the digital divide persists, exacerbating income inequality, elite capture and exploitation. Aligning digital platforms and SEM dimensions can foster broader participation in the sharing economy, yielding positive outcomes such as improved access, livelihood opportunities and inclusion. The technoficing approach, which prioritises affordability, availability, accessibility and ease of use, can enhance alignment and lead to favourable consequences (Parthiban et al., 2024; Qureshi, Bhatt, & Shukla, 2021d; Qureshi, Pandey, et al., 2023). The tension between resource efficiency and overconsumption is salient in DESEM. While sharing underutilised assets can improve resource efficiency, Jevons' paradox suggests that increased efficiency can lead to overconsumption due to lowered costs and improved accessibility (Acquier et al., 2017; Cohen & Kietzmann, 2014). This phenomenon, known as rebound effects, occurs when efficiency gains result in increased consumption of resources (Ackermann & Tunn, 2024). For instance, ride-sharing services, despite generating profits for platform owners and drivers, can lead to more rides and higher greenhouse gas emissions (Cohen & Kietzmann, 2014). Free digital sharing platforms might exacerbate rebound effects as cost savings are redirected towards further consumption, such as items with single-use packaging, increasing waste generation. This tension highlights a misalignment between digital platform characteristics and SEM dimensions, where DESEM's positive environmental outcomes are undermined by economic incentives (net income/profit or cost reduction) for participants. Mitigating rebound effects requires redesigning digital platforms to balance environmental and economic incentives and involving diverse stakeholders. Digital platforms should facilitate not only the sharing of goods and services but also knowledge and awareness. Social intermediaries can enhance multistakeholder collaboration to balance economic and environmental gains (Galdini & De Nardis, 2021). Further, DESEM involves a tension between innovation and regulation at the BoP. While DESEM drives innovation, creating new business models and flexible work arraignments, it often operates in regulatory grey areas, posing challenges in enforcing standards and protecting workers and consumers. This can lead to exploitation due to the lack of labour protections and benefits typically associated with traditional employment (Nicholson et al., 2021; Pulignano et al., 2023). However, regulation, whether government-imposed or self-regulated, can protect BoP participants and mitigate negative consequences. Government regulations can ensure fair competition, standardise work norms and meet environmental standards, while self-regulation (e.g., ratings, transparency, security) can enhance trust and mitigate perceived unfairness or exploitation (Han et al., 2022; Mosaad et al., 2023). Improving the alignment between digital platform characteristics and SEM dimensions can balance the trade-off between innovation and regulation, promoting the scope of sharing and socialisation through self-regulation. Lastly, in addition to the value creation concerns, value capture challenges are also pronounced in the DESEM at the BoP, particularly in the distribution of benefits between the local communities and organisations promoting DESEM. While DESEM can empower marginalised individuals and communities by enabling entrepreneurial activities, large corporations often exert significant control, capturing much of the created value and favouring standardisation for scale advantage. This can erode local diversity and cultural values, leading to exploitation, precarious working conditions and weakening of local economies by transferring profits outside (Bhatt et al., 2023; Qureshi, Bhatt, & Shukla, 2021a; Schor, 2016). This negative consequence of the DESEM underscores the misalignment between the digital platform and the SEM dimensions. For example, the profit-oriented incentives and control of the digital platforms conflict with the values of the SEM at the BoP, which aims to empower the local communities by enabling sharing and socialisation. Socially oriented platforms or Platform cooperativism are suggested as alternative models with better alignment between the components of DESEM (Escobedo et al., 2021; Scholz, 2016). The paper included in this special issue provides critical insights into the uncertainty and trust issues in DESEM, which can deter wider participation in such models at the BoP. Cheng et al. (2024) argue that the low income and literacy of BoP participants (drivers) exacerbate their susceptibility to uncertainties and lack of trust in the ridesharing economy, and lower their engagement in ridesharing over time. Leveraging uncertainty reduction theory, the authors explore the mechanisms for mitigating BoP drivers' uncertainty and fostering trust in the ridesharing platforms. They identify three tiers of uncertainty: trust in passengers, trust in ridesharing platforms and the effectiveness of ridesharing institutional mechanisms. Utilising a sequential, multi-study, triangulated mixed-method research design, the authors find that perceived empathy and information congruity increase BoP drivers' trust in passengers, while effective escrow services, perceived justice and matching accuracy enhance their trust in ridesharing platforms. High privacy control further boosts this trust, encouraging more engagement with the platforms. Additionally, reducing uncertainty through trust in passengers, ridesharing platforms and effective institutional mechanisms enhances driver engagement. Follow-up interviews corroborate these quantitative results. This study extends DESEM literature by exploring BoP drivers' perceptions and behaviours, emphasising the role of aligning digital platform characteristics like escrow services, matching accuracy and privacy control with SEM dimensions to mitigate negative impacts and boost engagement. Future research should explore enhancing these characteristics to further improve platform alignment with SEM dimensions. We thank Robert Davison for his invaluable guidance throughout the preparation of this special issue and for providing insightful feedback on the editorial. We express our sincere gratitude to our esteemed associate editors, Bo Xiao, Carmen Leong, Christy Cheung, Isam Faik and Wenyu Du, for their profound engagement with the manuscripts. Additionally, we extend our heartfelt appreciation to the numerous expert reviewers whose invaluable assistance has contributed significantly to the process.