An Empirical Analysis of Invalid Voting in Municipal Elections
基于巴西2000-2020年5570个城市的数据，发现选举竞争越激烈，空白票和无效票比例越低；连任情景下有效票更多；经济因素和年龄也影响非常规投票模式。
ABSTRACT This paper examines blank and null voting in Brazilian mayoral elections using a large dataset covering 5570 municipalities between 2000 and 2020. The study finds that more competitive elections reduce blank and null percentages, with re‐election scenarios leading to more valid votes. Blank and particularly null voting are found to be more prevalent in municipalities where a second round is possible. Economic factors and age categories also contribute to determine unconventional voting patterns. The results also highlight important differences between blank and null voting patterns and between urban and rural areas, the later suggesting that more sophisticated voters tend to be less prone to invalidate the vote.