First to Wake-Up, Last to Eat: Evidence of Disproportionate Morning Penalties on Women in India
利用印度时间使用数据，发现女性比男性更可能最早起床（高31个百分点）却最晚吃早饭（高15个百分点），这种早晨的不平等与更差的健康指标相关，且不受个人时间灵活性影响，但在性别规范更平等的群体中较小。
The custom of women eating after men is associated with worse health outcomes for the former. Women also bear the predominant burden of chores and care work, which is concentrated during mornings. Together, these may imply higher intra-day sleep and mealtime inequalities in mornings, which is hitherto unexplored in the literature. Using time-use data from India, I find that women are more likely to be the last household member to have the morning (15 pp.) and night meals (3 pp.) vis-à-vis men. Women are also more likely to be the first to wake-up (31 pp.) but less likely to be the first to sleep at night (2 pp.). These higher morning inequalities are associated with poorer welfare measures that are linked to worse health outcomes. These gender inequalities persist irrespective of time flexibility available to self or partner, are significantly lower for social groups who follow relatively egalitarian gender norms (Scheduled Tribes) and are worse for more patriarchal districts in India. The findings highlight the limitation of economic progress alone in countering these inequalities and informs policy action such as promoting labour-saving technologies with gender sensitive designs, expansion of childcare and eldercare services, and scaling of gender-neutral school curriculum.