Does effective tourism management require collective action? Evidence from industry, community, and government stakeholders on shark dive ecotourism
研究质疑集体行动对旅游管理必要的观点，以斐济鲨鱼潜水生态旅游为例，发现尽管竞争激烈且协调有限，行业仍能产生积极影响，但加强集体行动有助于优化风险管理和可持续渔业倡导。
This article challenges the mantra that collective action of stakeholders is necessary to deliver effective tourism management that generates positive environmental, social, and economic impacts. It investigates the extent of, and necessity for, collective action among stakeholders involved in the shark diving ecotourism industry in Fiji. The industry exhibits high competition between operators, while its conservation impacts are being undermined by fishing. Interviews with industry, community, and government stakeholders reveal historical rivalries, weak regulations, variable operating practices, and divisive views on marine protected area (MPA) status for dive sites. Results demonstrate that expecting collective action from stakeholders in a competitive ecotourism industry is unrealistic; yet, despite limited coordination, cooperation, and collaboration, the industry is still able to achieve positive impacts. Nevertheless, greater collective action between operators, and between operators as a collective and other stakeholder groups, could help optimise business risk mitigation, tourist user fees, and advocacy for sustainable fisheries.