Caste Embeddedness and Entrepreneurship in Colonial and Contemporary India
利用1911年工业普查和2013-2014年经济普查数据，首次绘制印度企业种姓分布图，发现贸易种姓虽占主导但非贸易种姓作用被低估，百年间创业社会基础缓慢扩大但障碍仍存，提出种姓嵌入性通过财富分配、社会资本和仪式纯洁性影响创业选择。
How has caste influenced entrepreneurship in India in the past and how does it do so in the present? Using the Industrial Census of 1911, this paper provides the first detailed caste-level mapping of firms in Indian business history and links it to the present by an analysis of the Economic Census of 2013–2014. It finds that while trading castes were dominant, there were significant regional variations and nontrading castes were far more important than usually posited in the literature. Over the course of a century, the social base of entrepreneurship has widened slowly but significant barriers remain. The paper argues that “caste embeddedness” through the nature of wealth distribution, social capital, and ritual purity affects entrepreneurial choices and presents a typology of “caste,” “caste-advantage,” “caste-restricted,” and “noncaste” businesses that characterize the economic life of India.