Unintended Cluster Emergence: Revisiting Francoist Industrial Policy in the Steelmaking Pole of Asturias (Spain), 1939–1985
研究西班牙阿斯图里亚斯金属加工集群的涌现，发现佛朗哥的产业政策虽未直接支持，但通过建立国有钢铁巨头间接催生了集群，揭示了公共政策在集群形成中的非预期作用。
Since the 1990s, growing interest in the relationship between clusters and economic growth has highlighted the importance of understanding their internal structures and life cycles. Still, the mechanisms underlying cluster emergence remain largely unknown, especially regarding the influence of public policies in this initial stage. This paper examines the emergence of a metalworking cluster in the Spanish steelmaking pole of Asturias, focusing on Francoist industrial policy and the regime’s relationship with regional firms. Findings indicate that Asturias presented favorable conditions for cluster formation since the late eighteenth century. However, only the establishment of the national steelmaking champion Ensidesa in 1950 triggered the appearance of self-reinforcing dynamics, finally boosting the cluster’s emergence. This process resulted from the indirect externalities generated by the steel industry and was never part of the Francoist industrial agenda. Despite the recognized sector’s potential, the regime prioritized strategic base industries and systematically ignored calls for direct support for metalworking firms.