Multilevel Determinants of Financial Exclusion: Gender-Based Violence, Media Exposure, and Rural–Urban Disparities in India
利用印度全国家庭健康调查数据，研究发现性别暴力显著增加已婚女性金融排斥的可能性，且农村女性和媒体接触少的女性受影响更大。
This paper examines the relationship between gender-based violence (GBV) and financial exclusion among ever-married women in India, drawing on nationally representative data from the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5). While financial inclusion is often promoted as a pathway to empowerment, the structural barriers posed by GBV remain underexplored. Using a multilevel logistic regression framework, the analysis investigates whether experiences of emotional, physical, or sexual violence predict financial exclusion, defined across multiple domains. The study further explores how this relationship is moderated by media exposure and place of residence. Results indicate that GBV significantly increases the likelihood of exclusion, with a steeper gradient observed among rural women and those with limited media access. These findings support the view that financial exclusion is not solely an economic phenomenon, but one embedded in broader systems of structural violence and informational inequity. The inclusion of media exposure and spatial context offers new insight into how gendered harm interacts with development outcomes. The paper contributes to debates on inclusive finance by demonstrating that access alone is insufficient without attention to safety, autonomy, and structural constraints. Policy recommendations emphasise the need for gender-transformative approaches that integrate financial empowerment with protection against violence.