Non-Tariff Barriers and Entry Strategy Alternatives: Strategic Marketing Implications
分析了美国小企业出口中常见的非关税壁垒，并提出了克服这些贸易障碍的战略，帮助小企业制定主动的国际化营销计划。
Currently, the U.S. export market is dominated by large companies and multinational corporations. Kathawaba, Judd, Monipallil, and Weinrich (1989) state that only 10 percent of the total U.S. export business is conducted by small business despite the fact that foreign markets may offer the smaller firm solid opportunities for long-term growth and profitability. Furthermore, involvement in international business is not typically a formal objective flowing from the strategic thought processes of most U.S. small businesses. Instead, initial attempts to export are often stimulated by an inquiry from a potential customer located in a specific foreign country (Suzman and Wortzel 1984, Piercy 1981). Graham and Meloan (1986) found that 86 percent of the firms in their study initiated exporting as a result of these foreign inquiries and only 17 percent of the firms indicated that any significant research was completed before exporting began. Johnston and Czinkota (1985) had similar findings in their study of three industries. Only 38 percent, 50 percent, and 53 percent of the firms in each industry actively sought their first foreign order; conversely, between 47 percent and 62 percent of these firms received their first order on an unsolicited basis. Thus, despite the potential for sales growth and the existence of numerous government and private sector support programs, it appears that the majority of American small businesses begin exporting because someone overseas seeks them and/or their product, not because of a planned marketing strategy to enter a foreign market. Ironically, very few small businesses attempting to compete domestically would admit that they can be successful by waiting for customers to come to them. It may be just as illogical to expect high levels of international marketing success by taking this reactive approach. Although small businesses can seemingly achieve some success in exporting by waiting for foreign customers to contact them on an unsolicited basis, the more successful exporters probably pursue a focused, planned approach that clearly identifies foreign target markets and adapts their current domestic strategy when and where necessary (Dawson 1985, Kaynak et al. 1987, Namiki 1988). While a well organized, planned entrance into international markets will enhance the probability of success as well as the level of success (e.g., sales or profit volumes), many obstacles and challenges are likely to be encountered. These obstacles originate from sources both internal and external to the firm. Non-tariff barriers (NTBs) constitute a complex set of constraints that can frustrate and thwart the small business's international efforts. Recent literature has suggested that NTBs may now be the major obstacle faced by firms attempting to enter foreign markets (Czinkota, Rivoli, and Ronkainen 1989; Jeannet and Hennessey 1988). The purpose of this article is to provide an analysis of the NTBs most likely to be encountered by small businesses and to suggest strategies that can be used to overcome these constraints to international trade. NTBs are thus viewed as restraints to the small business international marketing efforts that can require business strategy changes in order to adapt to market differences. NON-TARIFF BARRIERS Non-tariff barriers did not seriously affect trade flows until the mid-1960s (Baldwin 1970). Prior to that time, tariffs (e.g., financial surcharges) were the dominant means of distorting world trade flows to the benefit of a particular host country. However, the success of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) rounds has resulted in relatively low tariff levels (averaging between 4 and 7 percent) among industralized countries. As tariff protection has diminished, non-tariff protection has emerged as a difficult, challenging constraint and may now be the most significant trade distorting mechanism (Ray and Marvel 1984). …